Introductory It

Introductory It

A :     To understand this lesson is easy.

B :     It    is easy to understand this lesson.

•          In this pattern, it has no meaning. It is used only to fill the subject position in the sentence. Thus, it is called introductory “it”.

•          A and B mean the same thing, but sentence B is more common and useful than A. A was introduced mainly to make the meaning of B easier to understand.  

Example of Introductory “it” :

•          To watch musical programs is pleasant.

•          It is pleasant to watch musical program.

•          To play football must be fun.

•          It is fun to play football

ASKING FOR INFORMATIOn

ASKING FOR INFORMATIOn

There are a number of formulas used when asking for information in English. Here are some of the most common:

* Could you tell me...?
* Do you know...?
* Do you happen to know...?
* I'd like to know...
* Could you find out...?
* I'm interested in...
* I'm looking for..

These two forms are used for asking for information on the telephone:

* I'm calling to find out...
* I'm calling about...

vocabulary around the house

vocabulary around the house

Attic People store things in the attic.
Ballroom A room in stately homes where rich people dance and concerts are held.
Box Room A small room used for storage.
Cellar Underneath the house.
Cloakroom A small room where people put their coats.
Conservatory A greenhouse attached to a house for the display of plants.
Dining Room A room where people eat.
Drawing Room A room in stately homes where rich people entertain.
Games Room A room in large houses where games are played.
Hall The entrance passage to a house.
Larder A small room used for the storage of food.
Library A room where books are kept.
Lounge Another name for living room.
Music Room A room where people play music.
Office A room where people work.
Pantry A small room used to store kitchen and dining items.
Parlour Old fashioned word for living room.
Sitting Room Another name for living room.
Spare Room/
Guest Room A room where guests sleep.
Toilet A room where people go to the toilet (often known as WC)
Utility Room A room where appliances such as washing machines are used.

Things you may find around the house

light bulb(s) plug(s) socket(s) torch(es)

ceiling light(s) lamp(s) curtain(s) shelf (shelves) 

(tele)phone(s) box(es) plug(s) battery (batteries)

photo(graph)(s) television table mirror 


picture
washtafel
bathtupe lamp 


Example:
Here is a conversation between Mrs Smith (Joan) and husband Steve. 
It's Saturday and Joan and Steve are decorating.
Joan : Steve, you missed a bit.
Steve : Where?
Joan : Here, on the wall just by the window, you can see a patch of white.
Steve : Oh yes, I see it. It's difficult in this light.
Joan : I know, well at least we have finished this room, only five more to go.
Steve : Are you sure you want to put wallpaper up in the lounge?
Joan : Yes, but don't worry, I'm really good at wallpapering. I just wish that John would decide on what he wants his room doing in.
Steve : I know, it's difficult when you're a boy. At least he's grown out of Star Wars, I keep thinking he'll ask for red and black or something equally gruesome.
Joan : Yes, but it is his room. I'm glad we decided not to move though. Maybe we should think about building an extension to the kitchen instead.
Steve : One thing at a time please! Lets get this decorating over and done with first.
Joan : Ha! Oh by the way you missed a bit by the door too!
Steve : Hmmm, thanks. Here's a brush.

Passive Voice

Passive Voice

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

¢  the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence

¢  the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

¢  the subject of the active sentence becomes by Agent in the passive sentence (or is dropped)

¢  Only active sentence containing object which can be changed into passive form

¢  The two forms should have the same tenses

¢  IN A PASSIVE CLAUSE, WE USUALLY USE A PHRASE BEGINNING WITH BY IF WE WANT TO MENTION THE AGENT - THE PERSON OR THING THAT DOES THE ACTION, OR THAT CAUSES WHAT HAPPENS.
EXAMPLES:
MY MOTHER   MAKES   THE SANDWICH EVERY MORNING.
   SUBJECT     VERB1+S/ES      O     C (ADV. OF TIME)


THE SANDWICH  IS MADE  BY MY MOTHER EVERY MORNING.
SUBJECT    O BE+V3      AGENT            C (ADV. OF TIME)

¢  If you want to change an active sentence which has two objects into its passive forms, there are two ways:

¢  Make its indirect object into the subject of the passive sentence.

¢  Make its direct object into the subject of the passive sentence

WHAT ABOUT OTHER TENSES?
PRESENT CONTINUOUS : [ S + TO BE + BEING +V₃ (PAST PARTICIPLE)
PRESENT PERFECT: [ S + HAS/HAVE + BEEN + V₃ (PAST PARTICIPLE

Here are the xamples:

¢  A young boy is catching a butterfly.

¢  A butterfly is being caught by a young boy.

¢  Yano has returned the book to the library.

¢  The book has been returned to the library by Yano.

—  John  is giving  his girl-friend  a bunch of flower.

                         indirect object      direct object

—  Passive: The indirect object as the subject

                John’s girl-friend is being given a bunch of flower

or

—  Passive: The direct object as the subject

                A bunch of flower  is being given  to John’s girl-friend

               

Take a look at the followings:

¢  People don’t use bikes anymore

¢  Bikes are not used anymore

¢  Did the students play the cards in the class yesterday?

¢  Were the cards played in the class yesterday?

¢  And so on

asking if somoeone remembers or not

asking if somoeone remembers or not

There are a number of formulas used when asking for information in English. Here are some of the most common:

* Could you tell me...?
* Do you know...?
* Do you happen to know...?
* I'd like to know...
* Could you find out...?
* I'm interested in...
* I'm looking for..

These two forms are used for asking for information on the telephone:

* I'm calling to find out...
* I'm calling about...

offering

offering

The expression of “ Would you like....”is normally used for offering something to someone.
Nia : Would you like a cup of tea, Mr, Owyedz?
Mrs. Owyendz: Yes, please. Thank you. Hmmm...this tea tastes good....and smells fragrant too.......
Nia : thank you. I’m glad you like it.

Ways to say it

* Would you like a cup of coffee, Mr Green?
* Should I get you a bottle of water?
* Could I offer you a glass of milk, Mr. kiki?
* Would you care some salad?

Ofering to friends:

* Want some?
* Have some?
* Chocolate?
* Grab some for yourself 

Less formal expressions:

* Would you like to have a pancake?
* Why don't you have some lemonade?
* What can I get for you?
* What will you have?

Declining an offering 

* No, thanks.
* No, really won't, thanks
* Not for me, thanks.

Accepting an offering:

* Thank you.
* Yes, please
* I'd like it very much 
* That would be very nice

simple future

simple future

Simple future is used for describing job or action that will to do (happened) at future. 
A. In order to
1. Future tense “will”
a. To assert incident/event that future and decide that incident at talking.
Example= A: can you help me to do this home work?
B: of course, I will do it for you.

b. To offer to do something.
Example= A: I don’t have a pen to write.
B: don’t worry. I will lend you.

c. To assert an agreement to do something.
Example= A: you must come to my party.
B: I promise I will come on party.

d. To ask someone to do something.
Example= A: it’s very hot in my room.
B: certainly.

e. To predict event that will be happened
Example= A: will I pass the test next month?
B: don’t worry, you will pass.

f. To assert an incident/event that will be sure happened.
Example= A: I’m seventeen years old now.
How old will I be next year?
B: you will be eighteen years old next years.
All people and animals in the world will die

2. Future tense “shall”
a. To assert a deal or gift suggestion
Example= Today, we are free.
Where shall we go?
Note: shall for subject “I, we”

3. Future tense “be going to”
a. To assert an incident that will be happened and gone ever break a promise to do it.
Example= A: Did you send my letter for her?
B: oh, I’m sorry I forgot.
I’m going to send it tonight.

b. To assert an incident/event that cause there are incident/event that mention that what will be next happened.
Example= A: The sky is very dark.
What do you think?
B: I think it’s going to rain

B. Time signal
1. Tomorrow…
 Morning
 Afternoon
 Evening
 Night
2. Next…
 Time
 Week
 Month
 Year
 January
3. Tonight
4. The day after tomorrow
5. Soon
6. Later
7. Two, three more days
8. Two, three days later
9. By and by

C. Formation of sentences
1. Positive (+):
a. Subject + shall/will + VI
Example: I shall clean the room
We will go to school
She will give a present
Note: “shall” just can use for subject “I and We”

b. Subject + be + going to + VI
Example: I am going to play tennis
They are going to swim very fast
He is going to write a story



2. Negative (-)
a. Subject + shall/will + not + VI
Example: I shan’t buy a shirt
He won’t clean the room
Note: shall not = shan’t
Will not = won’t

b. Subject + be not + going to + VI
Example: I am not going to give a present

3. Interrogative (?)
a. Shall/will + subject + VI ?
Example: will we play tennis?

b. Be + subject + going to + VI ?
Example: is she going to write a story?

NOUN PHRASE

NOUN PHRASE

A noun phrase is other a single noun or any group of words containing noun or a pronoun that function together as a noun or pronoun, as the subject or object of averb.

For example, ‘they’ , ‘books’, and ‘the books’, are noun phrases, but ‘book’ is just a noun, as you can see in these sentences (in which the noun phrases are all in bold)

- Structure of Noun Phrases:
• A beautiful old painting on the wall

When you use a noun in front of another noun, you never put adjectives between them, you put adjectives in front of the first noun.
Example : We just spoke with a young American boy

Noun phrase can be in form of gerund (base + ing) or gerund and other nouns compounding.
Example : Passing the exam watching TV

FINITE VERBS

FINITE VERBS

A finite verb is a verb that is inflected for person and for tense according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it occurs. Finite verbs can form independent clauses, which can stand on their own as complete sentences.

The finite forms of a verb are the forms where the verb shows tense, person or number. Non-finite verb forms have no person or number, but some types can show tense.

• Finite verb forms include: I go, she goes, he went
• Non-finite verb forms include: to go, going, gone

Indo-European languages

In the Indo-European languages (such as English), only verbs in certain moods are finite. These include:

• the indicative mood (expressing a state of affairs); e. g., "The bulldozer demolished the restaurant," "The leaves were yellow and stiff."
• the imperative mood (giving a command); e. g., "Come here!", "Be a good boy!"
• the subjunctive mood (typically used in dependent clauses); e. g., "It is required that he go to the back of the line." (The indicative form would be "goes".)
• the optative mood (expressing a wish or hope). Non-existant as a mood in English.

Verb forms that are not finite include:

• the infinitive
• the participles (e. g., "The broken window...", "The wheezing gentleman...")
• the gerund (e. g., "I like swimming.")
• the gerundive
• the supine

It might seem that every grammatically complete sentence or clause must contain a finite verb. However, sentences lacking a finite verb were quite common in the old Indo-European languages. The most important type of these are nominal sentences.

Another type are sentence fragments described as phrases or minor sentences. In Latin and some Romance languages, there are a few words that can be used to form sentences without verbs, such as Latin ecce, Portuguese eis, French voici and voilà, and Italian ecco, all of these translatable as here ... is or here ... are. Some interjections can play the same role. Even in English, a sentence likeThanks for your help! has an interjection where it could have a subject and a finite verb form (compare I appreciate your help!).

DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

DESCRIPTIVE TEXT

D

A descriptive text is a text which lists the characteristics of something. Take an example, the following is one of the text belongs to the descriptive text.

Prambanan Temple

Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple compound in Central Java in Indonesia, located approximately 18 km east of Yogyakarta.

The temple is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia. It is characterised by its tall and pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47m high central building inside a large complex of individual temples.

It was built around 850 CE by either Rakai Pikatan, king of the second Mataram dynasty, or Balitung Maha Sambu, during the Sanjaya Dynasty. Not long after its construction, the temple was abandoned and began to deteriorate. Reconstruction of the compound began in 1918. The main building was completed in around 1953. Much of the original stonework has been stolen and reused at remote construction sites. A temple will only be rebuilt if at least 75% of the original stones are available, and therefore only the foundation walls of most of the smaller shrines are now visible and with no plans for their reconstruction.

The temple was damaged during the earthquake in Java in 2006. Early photos suggest that although the complex appears to be structurally intact, damage is significant. Large pieces of debris, including carvings, were scattered over the ground. The temple has been closed to the public until damage can be fully assessed. The head of Yogyakarta Archaeological Conservation Agency stated that: “it will take months to identify the precise damage”. However, some weeks later in 2006 the site re-opened for visitors. The immediate surroundings of the Hindu temples remain off-limits for safety reasons.

We get the purpose from the text above that description is used in all forms of writing to create a vivid impression of a person, place, object or event e.g. to: ·

• Describe a special place and explain why it is special.
• Describe the most important person in your live.
• Describe the animal’s habit in your report.

Descriptive writing or text is usually also used to help writer develop an aspect of their work, e.g. to create a particular mood, atmosphere or describe a place so that the reader can create vivid pictures of characters, places, objects etc. To complete our intention to, here are the characteristics based on descriptive writing or text, below;

As a feature, description is a style of writing which can be useful for other variety of purposes as:

• To engage a reader’s attention
• To create characters
• To set a mood or create an atmosphere
• To being writing to life

While in language function, descriptive writing;

• Aims to show rather than tell the reader what something/someone is like
• Relies on precisely chosen vocabulary with carefully chosen adjectives and adverbs.
• Is focused and concentrates only on the aspects that add something to the main purpose of the description.
• Sensory description-what is heard, seen, smelt, felt, tasted.Precise use of adjectives, similes, metaphors to create images/pictures in the mind e.g. their noses were met with the acrid smell of rotting flesh.
• Strong  development of the experience that “put the reader there” focuses on key details, powerful verbs and precise nouns.

Beyond the characteristics stated on, descriptive writing also consists of generic structure in range as:

1. General statement
2. Explanation
3. Closing

The description text has dominant language features as follows:

1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Using passive voice
4. Using noun phrase

News Item

News Item

 News Item:  is a factual text which informs the readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.

•          Social function of news item is: to inform readers, listeners or viewers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important
.

Generic structure:

•          Newsworthy Event(s):  recounts the events in summary form

•          Background Event(s):  elaborate what happened, to WHOM, in WHAT circumstances.

•          Sources:  comments by participants in, witnesses to, and expert on the event.

•          Significant Grammar Features:

•          Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline

•          Generally using Simple Past Tense

•          Use of Material Processes to retell the event

•          Using Action Verbs, e.g.: were, run, go, kill, etc.

•          Using Saying Verbs, e.g.: say, tell

•          Focus on Circumstances

•          Use of projecting Verbal Processes in Sources stages

•          There are some rules that can help to make newspaper headlines more comprehensible.

•          The passive voice is used without the appropriate form of “be”. 

 Example:  Town ‘Contaminated’

Complete Sentence:  Town is contaminated.

•          It is unusual to find complex forms, generally the simple present form is used

Example:  Fire Destroys over 2,511 acres of Forest in 2003-2004

Complete Sentence:  Fire has destroyed over 2,511 acres of forest in 2003-2004.

»        The present progressive tense is used, usually to describe something that is changing or developing, but the auxiliary verb is usually left out.

 Example:  World Heading for Energy Crisis

Complete Sentence:  The world is heading for an energy crisis.

»        To refer to the future, headlines often use the infinitive.

•          Example:   Queen to Visit Samoa.

•          Complete Sentence:  The Queen is going to visit Samoa.

»        Headlines are not always complete sentences.

Example:  More earthquakes in Japan.

Complete Sentence:  More earthquakes happened in Japan

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct speech refers to reproducing another person’s exact words or saying exactly what someone has said (sometimes called quoted speech)
Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.
For example:
She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations."
or
"Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

•          indirect speech reproducing the idea of another person’s words that doesn’t use question mark to enclose what the person said and it doesn’t have to be word for word. Indirect speech is sometimes called reported speech

For example:

Direct speech :"I'm going to the cinema", he said.

Indirect speech : He said he was going to the cinema.

•          When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.

•          Note : the reporting verbs that are usually used to report imperative sentence are :Tell , other command , ask , warn , remind

Present simple
Past tense
direct                    : Vita said “ I eat fried rice”
indirect :Vita said that  she ate fried rice.

Past simple 
Past perfect
direct                    : Mother said “ I went to market yesterday”
indirect : Mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

 Future simple
Past future
direct                    : Dave said “ I will buy an i-pod next week’
indirect : Dave said (that) he would buy an i-pod the week after

Present continuous 
Past continuous
direct                    : Gama said “ I’m playing football”
indirect : Gama said he was playing football

Past continuous 
Past perfect continuous
direct                    : She said “ I was teaching earlier”
indirect : She said she had been teaching earlier

when we want to report what someone said , wedon’t usually repeat their exact words , we use our words , we can use reporting words such as tell say as follow by “that clause”
example  :
my  mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
Now Today/tonight Yesterday Tomorrow Last week Next week Ago	Then that day / that night The day before / the previous day The next / following day The previous week The following week / the week after Before

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
This/these Here pronouns	That/those There They changes according to the context

Type	Form	example
Yes-no question	Ask + if / whether + S + verb wonder etc	do you speak English “ He wondered if I spoke English
Wh-question	Ask + question word + S + verb wonder etc	“what are you watching” She asked what I’m watching

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
will  She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow.“ can  She said, "I can teach English online." must  She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online.“	would  She said she would teach English online tomorrow. could  She said she could teach English online.  had to  She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
shall  She said, "What shall we learn today?" may  She said, "May I open a new browser?"	should  She asked what we should learn today. might  She asked if she might open a new browser.

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

Modals in the Past

Modals in the Past

Modals in the Past

can't have	could	could have	couldn't	couldn't have
didn't need to	had to	may have	may not have	might have
might not have	must have	needn't have	ought not to have	ought to have
should have	shouldn't have	would have	would not

can't have

certainty e.g. I can't have lost my keys! (I'm sure I didn't)

could	permissione.g. When I was a teenager, I could go out as late as I wanted.
	general abilitye.g. Tom could walk by the age of 8 months.

could have	possibility, but did not happene.g. I could have passed my driving test if I'd really tried.
	uncertaintye.g. I guess it could have been Sandra on the phone.

    

couldn't	permissione.g. When I was a teenager, I couldn't stay out as late as I wanted.
	general abilitye.g. I couldn't walk until I was 2.
	ability in a particular situatione.g. I tried hard but I couldn't persuade him to go to the party with us.

couldn't have	possibility/abilitye.g. I couldn't possibly have passed my driving test, even if I'd tried harder.
	uncertaintye.g. It couldn't have been Sandra on the phone, could it?
	with comparative adjectivese.g. I couldn't have asked for better weather on my wedding day.
	unwillingness e.g. I couldn't have left the dog in the car for long (so I didn't).

        

didn’t need to

unnecessary action not done e.g. As I was alone this weekend, I didn't need to do any cooking (so I didn't).

had to

obligation (past form of must) e.g. I couldn't go out last night because I had to do my homework.

may have

uncertainty e.g. I guess I may have been a bit hard on her when she came home an hour late.

may not have

uncertainty e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the test.

might have	possibility (didn't happen)e.g. You might have been killed!
	uncertaintye.g. I guess I might have been a bit hard on her when she came home an hour late.
	annoyance at someone's failure to do somethinge.g. You might have told me that you had invited all your colleagues round for dinner!
	might have known + would (idiom to ironically express that somebody's action was typical)e.g. I might have known that he would finish with me as soon as he found out I wasn't wealthy!

might not have

uncertainty e.g. He may not have found out yet that he has passed the test.

must have	certaintye.g. He must have known how much it was going to cost.  (I'm sure he knew.)
	with surely in exclamationse.g.  Surely he must have known how much it was going to cost!

needn't have

unnecessary action that was actually done e.g.  Oh, you needn't have done the washing up!

ought not to have

criticism (more common is shouldn't have) e.g. You ought not to have been so frank with him.

ought to have

expectation (should have is more common) Why is she late?  She ought to have arrived by now!

should have	expectation Why is she late?  She should have arrived by now!
	should have + verbs of thinkinge.g. I should have thought you knew.
	with be and adjectives, describing chancee.g. It was weird that you should have been staying in the same hostel last month.
	criticism (you didn't do something, but it would have been the right thing to do)e.g.  The party was such fun last night!  You should have come!

shouldn't have	criticism e.g. You shouldn't have been so frank with him.
	polite expression of thanks on receiving a gift or favour "Here's a bottle of wine for you" "Oh, you really shouldn't have!"

would have	events in the past that did not happene.g.  I wouldn't have gone out with him, but he didn't ask me.
	assumptionse.g. Oh, that would have been Sarah on the phone just now.

would not

unwillingnesse.g. I asked Tom to close the window, but he wouldn't do it.